You'll notice lots of bonus material below the questions below. Don't feel obliged to read it all. It's lagniappe, take it or leave it. But I bet you'll enjoy the comics at the bottom. (Also, let's maybe take a moment at the beginning of class for one last look at our posted introductions.)
LH 2
Study Questions
1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him?
Would you rather attend Plato's Academy or Aristotle's Lyceum? Why? Have you ever sharply disagreed with a teacher whom you nonetheless deeply admired? Is change the only constant in the Universe? Is that paradoxical? Which God seems more plausible to you, one who is personally interested in human affairs or Aristotle's contemplative and self-regarding Mover? Which seems more compatible with the world as we know it? Are forms in things, or do they stand apart and above as pure Ideas? What do you see as the value of logic? How can a person excel at "the art of living"? (275) Did Aristotle have the right idea about this? Do you have any role-models in this regard? Aristotle said we philosophize not in order to know what excellence is, but to be excellent and become good. (283) Is this a false dichotomy? Do you have to know what good is, at least implicitly, before you can be good? Is art a "cave within a cave" (286), or a source of light and truth? Or both? Do you agree with Plato that "laughing at comedies makes us cyncial, shallow and ignoble"? (289) If you side with Aristotle in preferring to study "earthly things" does that imply less interest in "thoughts of the heavens"? (290) What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness? If you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's? Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness? Are you happy? Are you a hedonist? Do you believe anything strictly on the basis of authority, whether that of a person, an institution, or a tradition? Why or why not?
1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him?
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
DQ
- What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
- If you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's?
- Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?
- Are you happy? Are you a hedonist?
- Do you believe anything strictly on the basis of authority, whether that of a person, an institution, or a tradition? Why or why not?
Aristotle's Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life by Edith Hall...
Edith Hall on the 5 Best Books on Aristotle:I was brought up in a strict Protestant family by an Anglican priest of the Calvinist end of the spectrum. I lost my religion completely at the age of 13 and this left a yawning gap. I nearly went off the rails because I could not see why there was any advantage in practising virtue. Without an interventionist or providential deity, I could see no point in trying to be a good person. Of course, I later discovered that it was a major discussion topic in moral philosophy. I had a disturbed teens, as many of us do: I tried all sorts of weird religions and spiritualism and narcotics. I was six years in the moral wilderness and miserable because I needed to have a goal in life, and a reasoned set of guideposts to what would make me happier and those around me happier and, by extension, the whole of society happier.
The first bit of Aristotle I read was book three of the Nicomachean Ethicsfor an undergraduate essay on how characters deliberate and make decisions in tragedy. I was completely blown away by it. I realised that this was exactly what I had been looking for...
...at the risk of sounding flippant, my theory is that Plato invented the theory of the Forms because he was, in contrast [to Aristotle], short-sighted. I am very myopic myself and have had to create an advanced set of images in my head of what things look like to help me move around when I can’t find my contact lenses. I think Plato was the brainy, geeky boy born into a military-minded family of statesmen with tyrannical or oligarchic leanings. He became a philosopher because he couldn’t be a general, whereas Aristotle came striding down from Northern Greece with his 20/20 vision. So, of course Aristotle was interested in empirical study of material, physical reality and what Plato would have thought of as the superficial appearance of things...
He fled Athens because he was accused, just like Socrates, of impiety. But unlike Socrates (who wanted to be a martyr and could have left but didn’t), Aristotle sensibly removed himself back to safe exile in his maternal ancestral home. He died, probably of stomach cancer, not long after getting there, a disappointed man, at the age of sixty-two...
His theory of conscious recollection, which only humans can perform, was a support to me [when my mother was dying]. Animals have memory, he argues, but they cannot deliberately recollect. Aristotle says that this is a uniquely human skill. That idea has also influenced me as an academic: I think I’m a custodian of deliberate recollection because I write history books and consciously retrieve memories of our human past, activate our historical consciousness. But the same notion became invaluable to me, personally, as I went through my memory bank and shared with my mother all my happiest memories of childhood with her. I think that helped my mother as well.
We know that Aristotle used all sorts of aides-memoires. He had a painting of his mother of whom he had been very fond. He never forgot his wife, who died young. He had a bust of Socrates and a picture of a much-loved former student in the Lyceum too. He wrote a poem in memory of the ruler of Assos who had been a close friend. He used deliberate recollections to keep links with the past, even though he didn’t believe in any life after death. I think that is moving. The man who faced death full in the face, one of the very few people in Antiquity who did that, had this brave awareness that life is not only not a dress rehearsal, but it’s the sole performance and premiere rolled into one. I found him extraordinarily helpful in one of life’s most difficult situations.
I think Aristotle is quite simply the most important intellectual who ever lived. He has foundational status in so many academic disciplines, as well as having invented a revolutionary human-centred ethics. Everybody deserves to get access to this marvellous thinker.(continues)
==
The Stagirite said...
“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
“Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”
“Happiness depends upon ourselves.”
“One swallow does not make a summer, neither does one fine day; similarly one day or brief time of happiness does not make a person entirely happy.”
“Wishing to be friends is quick work, but friendship is a slow ripening fruit.”
“Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives - choice, not chance, determines your destiny.”
“Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.”
“He who has overcome his fears will truly be free.”
“The high-minded man must care more for the truth than for what people think.”
==
Edith Hall on the 5 Best Books on Aristotle:
The first bit of Aristotle I read was book three of the Nicomachean Ethicsfor an undergraduate essay on how characters deliberate and make decisions in tragedy. I was completely blown away by it. I realised that this was exactly what I had been looking for...
...at the risk of sounding flippant, my theory is that Plato invented the theory of the Forms because he was, in contrast [to Aristotle], short-sighted. I am very myopic myself and have had to create an advanced set of images in my head of what things look like to help me move around when I can’t find my contact lenses. I think Plato was the brainy, geeky boy born into a military-minded family of statesmen with tyrannical or oligarchic leanings. He became a philosopher because he couldn’t be a general, whereas Aristotle came striding down from Northern Greece with his 20/20 vision. So, of course Aristotle was interested in empirical study of material, physical reality and what Plato would have thought of as the superficial appearance of things...
He fled Athens because he was accused, just like Socrates, of impiety. But unlike Socrates (who wanted to be a martyr and could have left but didn’t), Aristotle sensibly removed himself back to safe exile in his maternal ancestral home. He died, probably of stomach cancer, not long after getting there, a disappointed man, at the age of sixty-two...
==
The Stagirite said...
“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
“Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”
“Happiness depends upon ourselves.”
“One swallow does not make a summer, neither does one fine day; similarly one day or brief time of happiness does not make a person entirely happy.”
“Wishing to be friends is quick work, but friendship is a slow ripening fruit.”
“Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives - choice, not chance, determines your destiny.”
“Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.”
“He who has overcome his fears will truly be free.”
“The high-minded man must care more for the truth than for what people think.”
==
Arts & Letters Daily search results for “aristotle” (18)
2013-08-08 | Aristotle thought it witless. St. Augustine called it a disease. Only in the 1600s did society start to tolerate curiosity more »
2016-10-17 | Philosophy, which, according to Aristotle, begins in wonder, has embraced pedantry and protocols and office charts. Can it be saved from itself? more »
2018-05-14 | Aristotle in America. His understanding of the middle class was a truth upon which the country's founders depended when legislating their own republic more »
2017-01-14 | Because the study of logic ended with Aristotle, Kant believed, the field had run its course. But what was logic for in the first place? more »
2014-09-02 | According to Aristotle, to understand something we must grasp what it is not. We must come to terms with nothingness. But how? more »
2017-05-03 | Welcome to Scrutopia, the English countryside enclave of farmers and philosophers, Wagner and wine, animals and Aristotle. Roger Scruton calls it home more »
2014-04-29 | Can anyone 'sigh blood? or play ?whisper music? on her hair? No matter: As Aristotle knew, a command of metaphor is 'the mark of genius? more »
2017-12-06 | Equality is a modern idea. Its detractors have included Plato and Aristotle; indeed, for most Western thinkers, humanity was marked by chasms of distinction more »
2018-06-01 | Aristotle’s ethics of virtue offers a flexible philosophy for the 21st century. Yet few people read him today. The problem: his academese more »
2014-02-04 | Aristotle noted four types of lies; Augustine eight. Both frowned on fibbing. But some truths can be conveyed only through falsehoods more »
2014-06-06 | Aristotle was a big walker ? thus we call his philosophical school Peripatetic ? but is there really a connection between moving feet and moving minds? more »
2014-08-25 | Long before Cuvier, Darwin, and Mendel, Aristotle was deciphering the mysteries of the cuttlefish's abdominal tract, the ambiguities of hyena genitals more »
2013-07-17 | A philosopher's biography contends with philosophy's dismissal of biography. To wit, Heidegger on Aristotle: ?He was born, he thought, he died? more »
2016-08-15 | Aristotle called plot "the first principle." Though many revolutions have tried to replace it with intellectual or aesthetic dazzle, plot always returns more »
2018-06-08 | Did you know that Aristotle spoke with a lisp? That Socrates enjoyed dancing? The third-century gossip of Diogenes Laërtius is fascinating, if not always factual more »
2016-12-15 | What does it mean to “know” the future? The question has perplexed Aristotle, Newton, Laplace, Thomas Nagel, and quantum theorists alike. Is an answer possible? more »
2018-07-23 | Aristotle wrote an essay, “On Sleep and Sleeplessness,” wondering how and why we sleep. Maybe the real wonder is why we bother to stay awake more »
2018-08-11 | How would Aristotle cater a luncheon? What would he say about résumés or global warming? Such tidbits, among other fluff, make up a new book more »==
Russell: IN the corpus of Aristotle's works, three treatises on ethics have a place, but two of these are now generally held to be by disciples. the third, the Nicomachean Ethics, remains for the most part unquestioned as to authenticity, but even in this book there is a portion (Books V, VI, and VII) which is held by many to have been incorporated from one of the works of disciples. I shall, however, ignore this controversial question, and treat the book as a whole and as Aristotle's. The views of Aristotle on ethics represent, in the main, the prevailing opinions of educated and experienced men of his day. They are not, like Plato's, impregnated with mystical religion; nor do they -172- countenance such unorthodox theories as are to be found in the Republic concerning property and the family. Those who neither fall below nor rise above the level of decent, well-behaved citizens will find in the Ethics a systematic account of the principles by which they hold that their conduct shold be regulated. Those who demand anything more will be disappointed. The book appeals to the respectable middle-aged, and has been used by them, especially since the seveteenth century, to repress the ardours and enthusiasms of the young. But to a man with any depth of feeling it cannot but be repulsive. The good, we are told, is happiness, which is an activity of the soul. Aristotle says that Plato was right in dividing the soul into tow parts, one rational, the other irrational. The irrational part itself he divides into the vegetative (which is found even in plants) and the appetitive (which is found in all animals). the appetitive part may be in some degree rational, when the goods that it seeks are such as reason approves of. This is essential to the account of virtue, for reason alone, in Aristotle, is purely contemplative, and does not, without the help of appetite, lead to any practical activity. There are tow kinds of virtues, intellectual and moral, corresponding to the two parts of the soul. Intellectual virtues result from teaching, moral virtues from habit. It is the business of the legislator to make the citizens good by forming good habits. We become just by performing just acts, and similarly as regards other virtues. By being compelled to acquire good habits, we shall in time, Aristotle thinks, come to find pleasure in performing good actions. One is reminded of Hamlet's speech to his mother: Assume a virtue if you have it not. That monster, custom, who all sense doth eat, Of habits devil, is angel, yet in this, That to the use of actions fair and good He likewise gives a frock or livery That aptly is put on. We now come to the famous doctrine of the golden mean. Every virtue is a mean between two extremes, each of which is a vice. This is proved by an examination of the various virtues. Courage is a mean between cowardice and rashness; liberality, between prodigality and -173- meanness; proper pride, between vanity and humility; ready wit, between buffoonery and boorishness; modesty, between bashfulness and shamelessness. Some virtues do not seem to fit into this scheme; for instance, truthfulness. Aristotle says that this is a mean between boastfulness and mock-modesty (1108a), but this only applies to truthfulness about oneself. I do not see how truthfulness in any wider sense can be fitted into the scheme. There was once a mayor who had adopted Aristotle's doctrine; at the end of his term of office he made a speech saying that he had endeavoured to steer the narrow line between partiality on the one hand and impartiality on the other. The view of truthfulness as a mean seems scarcely less absurd. Aristotle's opinions on moral questions are always such as were conventional in his day. One some points they differ from those of our time, chiefly where some form of aristocracy comes in. We think that human beings, at least in ethical theory, all have equal rights, and that justice involves equality; Aristotle thinks that justice involves, not equality, but right proportion, which is only sometimes equality...IEP: Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, making contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. He was more empirically-minded than Plato or Socrates and is famous for rejecting Plato's theory of forms.As a prolific writer and polymath, Aristotle radically transformed most, if not all, areas of knowledge he touched. It is no wonder that Aquinas referred to him simply as "The Philosopher." In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote as many as 200 treatises, of which only 31 survive. Unfortunately for us, these works are in the form of lecture notes and draft manuscripts never intended for general readership, so they do not demonstrate his reputed polished prose style which attracted many great followers, including the Roman Cicero. Aristotle was the first to classify areas of human knowledge into distinct disciplines such as mathematics, biology, and ethics. Some of these classifications are still used today.As the father of the field of logic, he was the first to develop a formalized system for reasoning. Aristotle observed that the validity of any argument can be determined by its structure rather than its content. A classic example of a valid argument is his syllogism: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Given the structure of this argument, as long as the premises are true, then the conclusion is also guaranteed to be true. Aristotle’s brand of logic dominated this area of thought until the rise of modern propositional logic and predicate logic 2000 years later.Aristotle’s emphasis on good reasoning combined with his belief in the scientific method forms the backdrop for most of his work. For example, in his work in ethics and politics, Aristotle identifies the highest good with intellectual virtue; that is, a moral person is one who cultivates certain virtues based on reasoning. And in his work on psychology and the soul, Aristotle distinguishes sense perception from reason, which unifies and interprets the sense perceptions and is the source of all knowledge.Aristotle famously rejected Plato’s theory of forms, which states that properties such as beauty are abstract universal entities that exist independent of the objects themselves. Instead, he argued that forms are intrinsic to the objects and cannot exist apart from them, and so must be studied in relation to them. However, in discussing art, Aristotle seems to reject this, and instead argues for idealized universal form which artists attempt to capture in their work.
Aristotle was the founder of the Lyceum, a school of learning based in Athens, Greece; and he was an inspiration for the Peripatetics, his followers from the Lyceum... IEP
“One swallow does not make a summer,neither does one fine day; similarly one day or brief time of happiness does not make a person entirely happy.”
“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
“What is a friend? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.”
“Wishing to be friends is quick work, but friendship is a slow ripening fruit.”
“Anybody can become angry — that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way — that is not within everybody's power and is not easy.”
“Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”
“Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives - choice, not chance, determines your destiny.”
“Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.”
“The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead.” ==Abstract: Aristotle's ethics is reviewed and his distinction between pleasure and happiness is explained.A summary of Aristotle's ethics clarifies several important distinction between happiness and pleasure.
==School of Athens -- who's who...
PODCAST: The School of Athens
In Our Time Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss The School of Athens – the fresco painted by the Italian Renaissance painter, Raphael, for Pope Julius II’s private library in the Vatican. The fresco depicts some of the most famous philosophers of ancient times, including Aristotle and Plato, engaged in discussion amidst the splendour of a classical Renaissance chamber. It is considered to be one of the greatest images in Western art not only because of Raphael’s skill as a painter, but also his ability to have created an enduring image that continues to inspire philosophical debate today. Raphael captured something essential about the philosophies of these two men, but he also revealed much about his own time. That such a pagan pair could be found beside a Pope in private tells of the complexity of intellectual life at the time when classical learning was reborn in what we now call the Renaissance.With Angie Hobbs, Associate Professor in Philosophy at the University of Warwick; Valery Rees, Renaissance scholar and senior member of the Language Department at the School of Economic Science; Jill Kraye, Professor of the History of Renaissance Philosophy and Librarian at the Warburg Institute at the University of London
Athens in the 5th to 4th century BCE had an extraordinary system of government: democracy. Under this system, all male citizens [excluding women, slaves, non-property-owners...] had equal political rights, freedom of speech, and the opportunity to participate directly in the political arena. Further, not only did citizens participate in a direct democracy whereby they themselves made the decisions by which they lived, but they also actively served in the institutions that governed them, and so they directly controlled all parts of the political process... (AHE)
Aristotle was born around 384 BC in the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia where his father was the royal doctor. He grew up to be arguably the most influential philosopher ever, with modest nicknames like ‘the master’, and simply ‘the philosopher’. One of his big jobs was tutoring Alexander the Great, who soon after went out and conquered the known world.
Aristotle studied in Athens, worked with Plato for several years and then branched out on his own. He founded a research and teaching centre called The Lyceum: French secondary schools, lycées, are named in honour of this venture. He liked to walk about while teaching and discussing ideas. His followers were named Peripatetics, the wanderers. His many books are actually lecture notes... (SoL, continues)
== Correct Deviant One Ruler Kingship Tyranny Few Rulers Aristocracy Oligarchy Many Rulers Polity Democracy
Aristotle on democracy. Although Aristotle classifies democracy as a deviant constitution (albeit the best of a bad lot), he argues that a case might be made for popular rule in Politics III.11, a discussion which has attracted the attention of modern democratic theorists. The central claim is that the many may turn out to be better than the virtuous few when they come together, even though the many may be inferior when considered individually. For if each individual has a portion of virtue and practical wisdom, they may pool these assets and turn out to be better rulers than even a very wise individual... (SEP)==Aristotle's Politics. Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. And he who by nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity; he is like the
"Tribeless, lawless, hearthless one, "
whom Homer denounces- the natural outcast is forthwith a lover of war; he may be compared to an isolated piece at draughts.
Now, that man is more of a political animal than bees or any other gregarious animals is evident. Nature, as we often say, makes nothing in vain, and man is the only animal whom she has endowed with the gift of speech. And whereas mere voice is but an indication of pleasure or pain, and is therefore found in other animals (for their nature attains to the perception of pleasure and pain and the intimation of them to one another, and no further), the power of speech is intended to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the association of living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state.
Further, the state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the individual, since the whole is of necessity prior to the part... (ICA)==Aristotle's "Golden Mean" ...every ethical virtue is a condition intermediate (a “golden mean” as it is popularly known) between two other states, one involving excess, and the other deficiency (1106a26–b28). In this respect, Aristotle says, the virtues are no different from technical skills: every skilled worker knows how to avoid excess and deficiency, and is in a condition intermediate between two extremes. The courageous person, for example, judges that some dangers are worth facing and others not, and experiences fear to a degree that is appropriate to his circumstances. He lies between the coward, who flees every danger and experiences excessive fear, and the rash person, who judges every danger worth facing and experiences little or no fear. Aristotle holds that this same topography applies to every ethical virtue: all are located on a map that places the virtues between states of excess and deficiency. (SEP)
The Ethicist, Kwame Anthony Appiah:"Can I Stay Friends With Someone Who Voices Racist Views?"
“Perfect friendship is the friendship of men who are good, and alike in virtue,” Aristotle said in the “Nicomachean Ethics.” That is, and was meant to be, a pretty demanding standard. Given that your friend’s racist views, by contrast to your antiracist views, represent a vice, you are not alike in virtue. I find Aristotle’s standard too demanding, though. For one thing, perhaps because I was raised with a Christian consciousness of original sin, I am aware that no one is wholly virtuous... (continues)==For the Aymara people living in the Andes, the past lies ahead and the future lies behind. Laura Spinney looks at how different languages reflect, and shape, our conception of timeThe old man shields his eyes against the fierce light of the Altiplano and considers the question. When he talks about his ancestors, does he mean the Incas? No, he replies in a sort of Spanish creole, he means his great-great-grandfather. And with his right hand he makes a rotating gesture up and forwards from his body. The Incas, he adds, came way earlier. And with the same hand he sweeps even further forward, towards the mountains on the horizon.
In the next video clip, the researcher asks a woman to explain the origins of her culture. She starts by describing her parents' generation, then her grandparents', and so on, extending her arm further and further in front of her as she does so. Then she switches to talk about how the values of those earlier generations have been handed back to her (her hand gradually returns to her body from out front), and how she will in turn pass them on to her children (she thumbs over her shoulder).
The man and woman belong to an Amerindian group called the Aymara, who inhabit some of the highest valleys in the Andes - in their case, in northern Chile. The researcher is Rafael Núñez, a cognitive scientist at the University of California, San Diego, who is interested in how we develop abstract ideas like time. Núñez now believes that he has definitive evidence that the Aymara have a sense of the passage of time that is the mirror image of his own: the past is in front of them, the future behind... (Guardian, continues)
==
2013-08-08 | Aristotle thought it witless. St. Augustine called it a disease. Only in the 1600s did society start to tolerate curiosity more »
2016-10-17 | Philosophy, which, according to Aristotle, begins in wonder, has embraced pedantry and protocols and office charts. Can it be saved from itself? more »
2018-05-14 | Aristotle in America. His understanding of the middle class was a truth upon which the country's founders depended when legislating their own republic more »
2017-01-14 | Because the study of logic ended with Aristotle, Kant believed, the field had run its course. But what was logic for in the first place? more »
2014-09-02 | According to Aristotle, to understand something we must grasp what it is not. We must come to terms with nothingness. But how? more »
2017-05-03 | Welcome to Scrutopia, the English countryside enclave of farmers and philosophers, Wagner and wine, animals and Aristotle. Roger Scruton calls it home more »
2014-04-29 | Can anyone 'sigh blood? or play ?whisper music? on her hair? No matter: As Aristotle knew, a command of metaphor is 'the mark of genius? more »
2017-12-06 | Equality is a modern idea. Its detractors have included Plato and Aristotle; indeed, for most Western thinkers, humanity was marked by chasms of distinction more »
2018-06-01 | Aristotle’s ethics of virtue offers a flexible philosophy for the 21st century. Yet few people read him today. The problem: his academese more »
2014-02-04 | Aristotle noted four types of lies; Augustine eight. Both frowned on fibbing. But some truths can be conveyed only through falsehoods more »
2014-06-06 | Aristotle was a big walker ? thus we call his philosophical school Peripatetic ? but is there really a connection between moving feet and moving minds? more »
2014-08-25 | Long before Cuvier, Darwin, and Mendel, Aristotle was deciphering the mysteries of the cuttlefish's abdominal tract, the ambiguities of hyena genitals more »
2013-07-17 | A philosopher's biography contends with philosophy's dismissal of biography. To wit, Heidegger on Aristotle: ?He was born, he thought, he died? more »
2016-08-15 | Aristotle called plot "the first principle." Though many revolutions have tried to replace it with intellectual or aesthetic dazzle, plot always returns more »
2018-06-08 | Did you know that Aristotle spoke with a lisp? That Socrates enjoyed dancing? The third-century gossip of Diogenes Laërtius is fascinating, if not always factual more »
2016-12-15 | What does it mean to “know” the future? The question has perplexed Aristotle, Newton, Laplace, Thomas Nagel, and quantum theorists alike. Is an answer possible? more »
2018-07-23 | Aristotle wrote an essay, “On Sleep and Sleeplessness,” wondering how and why we sleep. Maybe the real wonder is why we bother to stay awake more »
2018-08-11 | How would Aristotle cater a luncheon? What would he say about résumés or global warming? Such tidbits, among other fluff, make up a new book more »
==Russell: IN the corpus of Aristotle's works, three treatises on ethics have a place, but two of these are now generally held to be by disciples. the third, the Nicomachean Ethics, remains for the most part unquestioned as to authenticity, but even in this book there is a portion (Books V, VI, and VII) which is held by many to have been incorporated from one of the works of disciples. I shall, however, ignore this controversial question, and treat the book as a whole and as Aristotle's. The views of Aristotle on ethics represent, in the main, the prevailing opinions of educated and experienced men of his day. They are not, like Plato's, impregnated with mystical religion; nor do they -172- countenance such unorthodox theories as are to be found in the Republic concerning property and the family. Those who neither fall below nor rise above the level of decent, well-behaved citizens will find in the Ethics a systematic account of the principles by which they hold that their conduct shold be regulated. Those who demand anything more will be disappointed. The book appeals to the respectable middle-aged, and has been used by them, especially since the seveteenth century, to repress the ardours and enthusiasms of the young. But to a man with any depth of feeling it cannot but be repulsive. The good, we are told, is happiness, which is an activity of the soul. Aristotle says that Plato was right in dividing the soul into tow parts, one rational, the other irrational. The irrational part itself he divides into the vegetative (which is found even in plants) and the appetitive (which is found in all animals). the appetitive part may be in some degree rational, when the goods that it seeks are such as reason approves of. This is essential to the account of virtue, for reason alone, in Aristotle, is purely contemplative, and does not, without the help of appetite, lead to any practical activity. There are tow kinds of virtues, intellectual and moral, corresponding to the two parts of the soul. Intellectual virtues result from teaching, moral virtues from habit. It is the business of the legislator to make the citizens good by forming good habits. We become just by performing just acts, and similarly as regards other virtues. By being compelled to acquire good habits, we shall in time, Aristotle thinks, come to find pleasure in performing good actions. One is reminded of Hamlet's speech to his mother: Assume a virtue if you have it not. That monster, custom, who all sense doth eat, Of habits devil, is angel, yet in this, That to the use of actions fair and good He likewise gives a frock or livery That aptly is put on. We now come to the famous doctrine of the golden mean. Every virtue is a mean between two extremes, each of which is a vice. This is proved by an examination of the various virtues. Courage is a mean between cowardice and rashness; liberality, between prodigality and -173- meanness; proper pride, between vanity and humility; ready wit, between buffoonery and boorishness; modesty, between bashfulness and shamelessness. Some virtues do not seem to fit into this scheme; for instance, truthfulness. Aristotle says that this is a mean between boastfulness and mock-modesty (1108a), but this only applies to truthfulness about oneself. I do not see how truthfulness in any wider sense can be fitted into the scheme. There was once a mayor who had adopted Aristotle's doctrine; at the end of his term of office he made a speech saying that he had endeavoured to steer the narrow line between partiality on the one hand and impartiality on the other. The view of truthfulness as a mean seems scarcely less absurd. Aristotle's opinions on moral questions are always such as were conventional in his day. One some points they differ from those of our time, chiefly where some form of aristocracy comes in. We think that human beings, at least in ethical theory, all have equal rights, and that justice involves equality; Aristotle thinks that justice involves, not equality, but right proportion, which is only sometimes equality...
IEP: Aristotle is a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy, making contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. He was more empirically-minded than Plato or Socrates and is famous for rejecting Plato's theory of forms.
As a prolific writer and polymath, Aristotle radically transformed most, if not all, areas of knowledge he touched. It is no wonder that Aquinas referred to him simply as "The Philosopher." In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote as many as 200 treatises, of which only 31 survive. Unfortunately for us, these works are in the form of lecture notes and draft manuscripts never intended for general readership, so they do not demonstrate his reputed polished prose style which attracted many great followers, including the Roman Cicero. Aristotle was the first to classify areas of human knowledge into distinct disciplines such as mathematics, biology, and ethics. Some of these classifications are still used today.
As the father of the field of logic, he was the first to develop a formalized system for reasoning. Aristotle observed that the validity of any argument can be determined by its structure rather than its content. A classic example of a valid argument is his syllogism: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Given the structure of this argument, as long as the premises are true, then the conclusion is also guaranteed to be true. Aristotle’s brand of logic dominated this area of thought until the rise of modern propositional logic and predicate logic 2000 years later.
Aristotle’s emphasis on good reasoning combined with his belief in the scientific method forms the backdrop for most of his work. For example, in his work in ethics and politics, Aristotle identifies the highest good with intellectual virtue; that is, a moral person is one who cultivates certain virtues based on reasoning. And in his work on psychology and the soul, Aristotle distinguishes sense perception from reason, which unifies and interprets the sense perceptions and is the source of all knowledge.
Aristotle famously rejected Plato’s theory of forms, which states that properties such as beauty are abstract universal entities that exist independent of the objects themselves. Instead, he argued that forms are intrinsic to the objects and cannot exist apart from them, and so must be studied in relation to them. However, in discussing art, Aristotle seems to reject this, and instead argues for idealized universal form which artists attempt to capture in their work.
Aristotle was the founder of the Lyceum, a school of learning based in Athens, Greece; and he was an inspiration for the Peripatetics, his followers from the Lyceum... IEP
“One swallow does not make a summer,
neither does one fine day;
similarly one day or brief time of happiness does not make a person entirely happy.”
“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.”
“What is a friend? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.”
“Wishing to be friends is quick work, but friendship is a slow ripening fruit.”
“Anybody can become angry — that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way — that is not within everybody's power and is not easy.”
“Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”
“Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives - choice, not chance, determines your destiny.”
“Those who educate children well are more to be honored than they who produce them; for these only gave them life, those the art of living well.”
“The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead.”
==
Abstract: Aristotle's ethics is reviewed and his distinction between pleasure and happiness is explained.
A summary of Aristotle's ethics clarifies several important distinction between happiness and pleasure.
==
School of Athens -- who's who...
In Our Time Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss The School of Athens – the fresco painted by the Italian Renaissance painter, Raphael, for Pope Julius II’s private library in the Vatican. The fresco depicts some of the most famous philosophers of ancient times, including Aristotle and Plato, engaged in discussion amidst the splendour of a classical Renaissance chamber. It is considered to be one of the greatest images in Western art not only because of Raphael’s skill as a painter, but also his ability to have created an enduring image that continues to inspire philosophical debate today. Raphael captured something essential about the philosophies of these two men, but he also revealed much about his own time. That such a pagan pair could be found beside a Pope in private tells of the complexity of intellectual life at the time when classical learning was reborn in what we now call the Renaissance.With Angie Hobbs, Associate Professor in Philosophy at the University of Warwick; Valery Rees, Renaissance scholar and senior member of the Language Department at the School of Economic Science; Jill Kraye, Professor of the History of Renaissance Philosophy and Librarian at the Warburg Institute at the University of London
Athens in the 5th to 4th century BCE had an extraordinary system of government: democracy. Under this system, all male citizens [excluding women, slaves, non-property-owners...] had equal political rights, freedom of speech, and the opportunity to participate directly in the political arena. Further, not only did citizens participate in a direct democracy whereby they themselves made the decisions by which they lived, but they also actively served in the institutions that governed them, and so they directly controlled all parts of the political process... (AHE)
Aristotle studied in Athens, worked with Plato for several years and then branched out on his own. He founded a research and teaching centre called The Lyceum: French secondary schools, lycées, are named in honour of this venture. He liked to walk about while teaching and discussing ideas. His followers were named Peripatetics, the wanderers. His many books are actually lecture notes... (SoL, continues)
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Correct Deviant One Ruler Kingship Tyranny Few Rulers Aristocracy Oligarchy Many Rulers Polity Democracy
Aristotle on democracy. Although Aristotle classifies democracy as a deviant constitution (albeit the best of a bad lot), he argues that a case might be made for popular rule in Politics III.11, a discussion which has attracted the attention of modern democratic theorists. The central claim is that the many may turn out to be better than the virtuous few when they come together, even though the many may be inferior when considered individually. For if each individual has a portion of virtue and practical wisdom, they may pool these assets and turn out to be better rulers than even a very wise individual... (SEP)
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Aristotle's Politics. Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. And he who by nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity; he is like the"Tribeless, lawless, hearthless one, "
whom Homer denounces- the natural outcast is forthwith a lover of war; he may be compared to an isolated piece at draughts.
Now, that man is more of a political animal than bees or any other gregarious animals is evident. Nature, as we often say, makes nothing in vain, and man is the only animal whom she has endowed with the gift of speech. And whereas mere voice is but an indication of pleasure or pain, and is therefore found in other animals (for their nature attains to the perception of pleasure and pain and the intimation of them to one another, and no further), the power of speech is intended to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the association of living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state.
Further, the state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the individual, since the whole is of necessity prior to the part... (ICA)
==
The Ethicist, Kwame Anthony Appiah:
"Can I Stay Friends With Someone Who Voices Racist Views?"“Perfect friendship is the friendship of men who are good, and alike in virtue,” Aristotle said in the “Nicomachean Ethics.” That is, and was meant to be, a pretty demanding standard. Given that your friend’s racist views, by contrast to your antiracist views, represent a vice, you are not alike in virtue. I find Aristotle’s standard too demanding, though. For one thing, perhaps because I was raised with a Christian consciousness of original sin, I am aware that no one is wholly virtuous... (continues)
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For the Aymara people living in the Andes, the past lies ahead and the future lies behind. Laura Spinney looks at how different languages reflect, and shape, our conception of timeThe old man shields his eyes against the fierce light of the Altiplano and considers the question. When he talks about his ancestors, does he mean the Incas? No, he replies in a sort of Spanish creole, he means his great-great-grandfather. And with his right hand he makes a rotating gesture up and forwards from his body. The Incas, he adds, came way earlier. And with the same hand he sweeps even further forward, towards the mountains on the horizon.In the next video clip, the researcher asks a woman to explain the origins of her culture. She starts by describing her parents' generation, then her grandparents', and so on, extending her arm further and further in front of her as she does so. Then she switches to talk about how the values of those earlier generations have been handed back to her (her hand gradually returns to her body from out front), and how she will in turn pass them on to her children (she thumbs over her shoulder).
The man and woman belong to an Amerindian group called the Aymara, who inhabit some of the highest valleys in the Andes - in their case, in northern Chile. The researcher is Rafael Núñez, a cognitive scientist at the University of California, San Diego, who is interested in how we develop abstract ideas like time. Núñez now believes that he has definitive evidence that the Aymara have a sense of the passage of time that is the mirror image of his own: the past is in front of them, the future behind... (Guardian, continues)
==
Because William Blake was right: Every living thing is holy.
...How lucky I am to live in a home with windows. Against all odds — the encroachments of construction companies and lawn services and exterminators — these windows still open onto a world that stubbornly insists on remaining wild. I love the bluebirds, and I also love the fierce hawk who reminds me that the peace of the backyard is only a fiction. I love the lizard who looks so much like a snake, and I also love the snake who would eat her if it could.
And my friend the mole, oh how I love my old friend the mole. In these days that grow ever darker as fears gather and autumn comes on, I remember again and again how much we all share with this soft, solitary creature trundling through invisible tunnels in the dark, hungry and blind but working so hard to move forward all the same. Margaret Renkl, nyt==Aristotle investigates some pre-Socratics (more Existential Comics featuring Aristotle here)
Because William Blake was right: Every living thing is holy.
...How lucky I am to live in a home with windows. Against all odds — the encroachments of construction companies and lawn services and exterminators — these windows still open onto a world that stubbornly insists on remaining wild. I love the bluebirds, and I also love the fierce hawk who reminds me that the peace of the backyard is only a fiction. I love the lizard who looks so much like a snake, and I also love the snake who would eat her if it could.
And my friend the mole, oh how I love my old friend the mole. In these days that grow ever darker as fears gather and autumn comes on, I remember again and again how much we all share with this soft, solitary creature trundling through invisible tunnels in the dark, hungry and blind but working so hard to move forward all the same. Margaret Renkl, nyt
And my friend the mole, oh how I love my old friend the mole. In these days that grow ever darker as fears gather and autumn comes on, I remember again and again how much we all share with this soft, solitary creature trundling through invisible tunnels in the dark, hungry and blind but working so hard to move forward all the same. Margaret Renkl, nyt
==
Aristotle investigates some pre-Socratics (more Existential Comics featuring Aristotle here)
"How is truth by authority hostile to the spirit of philosophy?"
ReplyDeleteIn my mind, philosophy only evolves and grows if there is more conversation. If questions stop getting asked just because someone who is considered a great mind seems to answer them, there is no conversation. No growth will eventually result in death, just like a plant.
"What did Aristotle mean by 'one swallow does not equal a summer'?"
Aristotle basically speaks on the fact that, as he sees it, one event or brief moment of joy does not equal happiness. He believed happiness spanned your whole life, sometimes even after death. You couldn't claim happiness because you felt good in one moment.
I think of myself as a happy, content person. I do the things I believe will make me happy, like staying home and reading, or eating the things I want to. I don't believe I'm a hedonist, exactly, because I'm not constantly seeking pleasure. There are times when I just exist, and that's fine, too. Life isn't just one big serotonin intake, and that's okay.
I would be more inclined to follow Aristotle over Plato, as he takes time to enjoy the things of the world. It seems as if Plato was constantly looking over earth, always searching for what was "more". I try to enjoy every small moment instead of constantly fretting over the deeper meaning.
Somewhere between “just existing” and serotonin spiking, there must be a happy medium. That’s what I pursue,
ReplyDelete[H2] HANNAH LITVJAK:
ReplyDelete"What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?"
I have always believed that pleasure is temporary and happiness is a harder sought, consistent, lingering feeling. One may argue that pleasure creates happiness, but happiness, in itself, exceeds pleasure.
"Are you happy? Are you a hedonist?"
For years I struggled with determining what was my state of happiness. As a kid I would drown in other people's emotions while awkwardly sifting through my own, so, during that time I was a hedonist. I like to think that I know myself better, and that I am getting better. However, I don't identify as hedonistic exactly, but I am slowly gaining more confidence to be more tolerable of myself and garnering more strength to coexist with myself.
"If you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's?"
I really like how Aristotle thinks. He was thorough, definitive and less stressfully existential. I side with Aristotle; the world in front of us has more answers than what's beyond us. We would be able to define more questions within ourselves by observing how others define theirs.
I'm not sure most hedonists are so concerned with others' emotions, as much as with their own sensations and perceptions. Opening ourselves to compassion and concern for others, seems to me, takes us away from an unhealthy fixation on ourselves.
DeleteWhat did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
ReplyDeleteHe means that just because things look good in the moment, doesn’t mean it will be good forever. Situations can change quicker than we may realize so we shouldn’t rely on it.
What does eudaimonia mean? Eudaimonia is basically the ultimate good we can reach to gain knowledge. This was a concept believed by Socrates, Plato, and others.
What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness? I almost see pleasure as a feeling that is temporary. Going to gamestop and getting a new video game to play is pleasure. But true happiness is something you have to find within yourself. Someone can have little moments of pleasure in their lifetime and still not truly be happy.
Though happiness is found within yourself, I would like to add that you make happiness through hard work and then success. It is when you work hard and graduate on the honor roll, get a promotion at work, raise a successful child, and so much more.
DeleteH03-What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
ReplyDeleteI would say pleasure comes from simple daily things. I walk outside and feel the warmth of the sun on my face, and it brings me simple but lovely pleasure. I think pleasure doesn’t last long. For example, as I’m looking up at the beautiful sky feeling the sun on my face, a bird could poop on me and instantly ruin that joy the sun brings. Happiness is more complex, deep, and often longer lasting than pleasure. Where I disagree with Aristotle is the idea that happiness takes a long time to gain and is difficult to achieve. He says that children are not genuinely happy because they haven’t been alive long enough to experience it. I believe pleasure can come and go quickly, as Aristotle says, but I don’t think you need years and years to experience happiness. I do believe, however, happiness is difficult to maintain, especially in the world we live in today.
-If you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's?
I would be on the side of Aristotle simply because he was more focused on life on earth rather than the abstract ideas that Plato was interested in. I would be depicted by looking out the window because I don’t really like big crowds especially those of old men who think they are smarter than me. I would be looking out the window because I am captivated by nature and the outdoors.
H03-Regarding the last question, I would choose the side of Aristotle as well. I like subjects that are more applicable to nature and the real world. With Plato's I would want to go experience the teachings rather than talk about theories and forms of life. I, too, am fascinated by the outdoors and the tangible things which make up the world around me.
DeleteI'd say one episode of pleasure in the warmth of the sun might not be happiness, but a lifelong habit of seeking and reveling in the sunshine might be predictive of it.
DeleteWhat does eudaimonia mean?
ReplyDeleteEudaimonia is the condition of human flourishing or of living well. It is commonly translated as "happiness," but it does differentiate between the state of the mind. From my understanding, eudaimonia is an objective standard based on the experience of happiness from living a human life well.
If you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's?
If I were in the painting, I would most likely be on Aristotle's side. This is because of his empirical and practical concepts and ideals. I might even be a mixture of both; being on Aristotle's side while also in a simplistic position like Diogenes. There are some things that I disagree with from Diogenes's philosophical perspectives but the motives and objectives he had were intentional. His style of living was just different than many others; defying normal stereotypes.
H3
Diogenes was eccentric, but he was also fiercely independent and willing to question the conventions and proprieties that everybody "knew" to be correct. I think every philosopher needs a little of that spirit. Too much of it, though, could be marginalizing.
DeleteWhat does eudaimonia mean?
ReplyDeleteEudaimonia means to be living well. Rather than just content or satisfied with where you're at, someone would be improving and continuing to do better. I don't think it is a state of short term happiness but is long term joy.
How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
In philosophy a lot of thinking and going back and forth between ideas is necessary. If someone were to believe something just because they are told it is true, they are not exchanging ideas with others or thinking about it by themselves.
Exactly.
Delete(H2)
ReplyDelete3. What does eudaimonia mean?
Eudaimonia is the philosophical peak of happiness, the state of pure satisfaction. In comparison to regular happiness, Eudaimonia is more permanent and not a simple reaction to a positive event. A comparison could be drawn to the state of Nirvana in Buddhism. Those that reach Eudaimonia typically reach it later in life according to Aristotle.
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
Assigning one idea as an objective truth is counter-intuitive to philosophy and science as a whole. What makes philosophy special is that there are no objective truths, every philosopher brings their own perspective on the human condition. While one significant thinker may influence society as a whole, going against any of their thoughts shouldn't be shunned.
Some ideas do compel wide assent by virtue of their excellence. The greater problem is when authority is granted to an individual, whose ideas are then unchallenged and unquestioned. The result is a stultified, anti-intellectual culture. Real philosphers welcome sincere challenge.
DeleteH2-
ReplyDelete4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
We can increase our chance of achieving eudaimonia by practicing good patterns of behavior. We need to emulate Aristotle's "Golden Mean" and develop good virtues. Aristotle claimed that humans are political animals; therefore, we need to practice our good behavior in conjunction with those around us to achieve eudaimonia.
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
Eudaimonia is achieved in relation to life in a society. Aristotle argued that humans are political animals, and therefore we must be able to live together with others. Our Eudaimonia depends on the interactions with others in a political society.
-Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like you child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?
I found this part of the chapter interesting because I had never considered something like this before. If you are a religious person and believe in some kind of afterlife, I could see how tragic events occurring after your death could affect your happiness. However if you do not believe in any type of afterlife, I find it hard to imagine how you could be affected by something that happens after you are gone.
I think it's not so much that Aristotle thought posthumous events detract from your happiness per se, insofar as we regard that as a quality of experience. But they detract from the degree to which your life can be said to have been a flourishing success. We should still do all we can to achieve eudaimonia, but in full recognition that ultimate judgment is beyond our control.
DeleteIn my opinion, the difference between pleasure and happiness is the source and the effect. When I thought about it, I came to this conclusion: happiness is a state of being and pleasure is something people seek. I watched this helpful YouTube video about it Epicurus | The Philosophy of Pleasure - YouTube.
ReplyDeleteIn the video, the narrator described a Greek scholar named Epicurus who sought knowledge about the philosophy of pleasure. He said that overindulgence can cause short-term pleasure, but causes pain in the long-run. My philosophy of indulging in pleasure or giving into pleasure is comparable to the use of social media. People receive likes and follows which can give than an instant gratification or sense of pleasure that feels good in the moment. After a while, the pleasure wears off and the user is ready to post something new to get even more likes.
On the other hand, I describe happiness as something that comes from being content. This happiness can stay and does not worry about ‘what’s next.’ In my experience, the happiness I feel is unconditional. Sometimes I feel so happy, so content that if something terrible had happened in that moment, nothing could shake my feeling of happiness. It sounds naive, but I have felt this more often than not, and I say this to disclose my experiences.
We'll talk soon about Epicurus and his "garden"...
DeleteI don't think we can entirely immunize ourselves against terrible events upsetting our contentedness, but we can get better at being so invested in an appreciation of present experience that it'll take something truly terrible to have that impact.
H03-6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
ReplyDeleteThis topic is highly applicable to Western society today. Truth by authority is inferior to the base of philosophy. Authority is a factor which attaches obligations and pressures to accept or believe certain statements/principles/theories as truth. An old example of this is Aristotle’s claim about falling objects. He stated that heavier objects fall faster toward the Earth than lighter objects. The people believed him because, at this point in time, Aristotle was an established scientist and thinker. No one questioned his claims or even tested the logic on their own.
Fast forward to now, this is still a part of society that has come to light in recent years. Now officials make claims on behalf of organizations which regulate what we do as humans and which health practices we follow. I’ve heard it been called ‘information wars,’ but it is the credibility of information received by Americans on the internet.
I found this media news website which explains aspects of this in current American society:
“Webster defines authority as “legal power.” Power and authority are not the same. Often today we see power used as a usurpation of authority. Because we fail to recognize the difference in the two, much of what we see being “mandated” as public policy has no authority behind it. The governor has the POWER to mandate masks, but he does not have the AUTHORITY to enforce it.”
By What Authority? | Truth11.com
Now, this is author described the relationship between mask mandates, authority officials (governors), and the power to enforce. Coming back to the topic of truth, there have been many people to question this move by the government; however, I try to see it from an objective point of view.
I think there is an extent to which people can question claims by authority figures. As society advances, people have the same ability to question officials and high-authority figures as encouraged, but they may not have the knowledge to follow through with testing or investigating the truth. For example, I could question a health official all I want, but I do not have the experience, knowledge, or expertise to find out for myself. It would get us nowhere to question without a full knowledge of what is going on.
Where philosophy tells me to question what I know, I see nothing I or the other party could gain from me questioning them with insufficient knowledge. My idea is to pick my battles because there is not enough tie in the day to become an expert in everything, yet I know not everything I am told is true or holds truth.
But when credible public health officials and scientists instruct us that we should wear masks in order to reduce the threat of viral contagion, the authority of such pronouncements is not arbitrary. The problem of authority is that it is too often wielded by people without credibility or supportive evidence for their pronouncements. Sadly, that's true of too many politicians these days.
Delete"What is eudaimonia?"
ReplyDeleteThe translation means "flourishing" or "happiness" but from the way Aristotle viewed it, it seems like an ever changing score that measures contentment/happiness. I look at it a bit like a video game. If things are going well for you and your goals are being achieved, your score would be higher and if you were not doing well it would be lower, no matter if you were actively participating in the "game" (life) or not.
"Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?"
I don't think it can. I believe once you die your life is wrapped up and the things that are to happen in the future have no influence on you. The one way it can is by how you prepare for and anticipate those things. If you are constantly anxious about your child's health, that would impact your happiness.
H3
I don't think our lives are ever "wrapped up" by our deaths, if we think that absolves us from responsibility for what happens after we're gone. If climate change resulting from present indifference to the human impact results in misery for future generations, for instance, that surely detracts from the degree to which our lives may be judged successful. That won't make us unhahppy THEN, but if we're conscientious the mere prospect of it should bother us NOW.
DeleteH03
ReplyDelete1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
When Aristotle said that "one swallow doesn't make a summer", it was in reference to the migrating patterns of swallows in relations to the seasons, in this case reasoning that the arrival of swallows was a symptom of increasing temperatures and the near arrival of summertime. This saying would most likely mean that one thing does not necessarily imply more, such as one lucky quarter not foreshadowing a discovery of treasure. A single swallow could be confused, or a hatchling, or simply early or late. One bird did not mean that one could bank on the season arriving without first finding more concrete evidence.
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
Truth by authority is very harmful to the spirit of philosophy primarily because it is the antithesis of philosophy, the search for truth by one's own pondering, discussions, and means. Truth by authority is to give up one's autonomy of thought to an exterior source, and as authority is one what would lead, another or a group with bias to control. Authority of law or authority of power should never mean authority of truth, as giving total control to another only allows oneself to be taken advantage of. Philosophy can often be seen as the search for the one true truth, but in this process becomes one's own truth. Allowing another to determine your truth discards some of the fundamental allowances of nature to man, which is the allowance of one to form an opinion or idea of their own volition.
He was really talking about humans, of course, not birds.
Delete"Authority of law or authority of power should never mean authority of truth" -- right, we should never concede to any authority the right simply to declare or invent truth arbitarily. But we should always insist that legitimate authority align itself with and defer to such truth as the evidence supports.
HO3
ReplyDeleteLH 2
1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
Aristotle using that statement pinned from his book Nicomachean is that it takes more moments that could be years for someone to know what happiness is.
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him?
Aristotle is reaching out towards the world in front of him.
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
The word eudaimonia means the opposite.
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
A person or people can increase their chance of eudaimonia was through achieving success and understanding what they can be in life not just moments of bliss that may happen from time to time or even what you happening to the people you care about, along with being able to develop good characteristics in life to have good habits instead of the bad ones because to Aristotle “good patterns of behavior are virtues; bad ones are vices.”, or how people interact with others.
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
In relation to how people go about living their life in society, the book relates to “We live together and we need to find our happiness by interacting well with those around us in a well-ordered political state.”
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
The “truth by authority” could be hostile to the spirit of philosophy because it can go against the ideals of philosophy in general by just going by someone’s else’s authority without taking the time to find reason, the science, or the research of what could be true along with being able to debate on topics and from those debates having room for respectfully expressing those ideas, coming to agreeance or being able to agree to disagree.
1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
ReplyDeleteBy this, he was saying that one summer bird is not proof that summer is here. Essentially meaning that just because there is one example or "sign" of something happening, it isn't verifiable proof of the event. Just like how one raindrop isn't proof of a thunderstorm.
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him?
Aristotle reaches out to the world in front of him.
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
It often meant flourishing or success.
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
By developing the right kind of character. Doing so will lead you to have the right kind of responses to life, and lead you down a better, more successful life.
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
Life in a society
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
It prevents combative thinking, which is such a large part of philosophy.
H1
DeleteAdding onto your answer for the first question, I think he is also trying to say that you cannot get short lived happiness from a sign of something that may not be true. Thats why he believes that happiness is a sense of overall achievement in life-- a long life for that matter.
H3
ReplyDelete1. Do you believe anything strictly on the basis of authority, whether that of a person, an institution, or a tradition? why or why not?
(A) I do not believe anything strictly because it came from an authority, because some authorities are chosen and others are forced. The government, my parents, and school up to high school are all authorities that I had no choice in but still had to listen to. That's not to say that they weren't a valid authority but that if I believed something simply because it came from one of those source's would take any choice I could have made away completely basically putting me on auto pilot with no thought or decision coming from me.
2. Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?
(A) No, I'm dead.
3. What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
(A) I see pleasure as a passive effect and happiness as an active effect. You can still feel other things on top of pleasure such as anger, sadness, and worry. Pleasure to me is being content and at peace, not missing any part and being able to fall asleep at night. Whereas happiness comes from things other than myself spending time with my friends, or finding a wad of money on the ground makes me happy, but after they go home and I spend the money the effect of fulfilment they left is still there.
4. which God seems more plausible to you, one who is personally interested in human affairs or Aristotle's contemplative and self regarding mover? Which seems compatible with the world as we know it.
(A) The uncaring god seems to me to be the more likely of the two, because it is foolish to think of humanity as the center of anything especially the universe. What really separate's us from animals and animals from bacteria and bacteria from solar systems. In between each of those steps there are exceptions to the classifications of what constitutes what it is so if there is no universal rule or form like Plato says then the apparent lines we see begin to blur and if you follow this reasoning to its logical conclusion they disappear and only one thing is left.
I agree with number 2. I don't think you would be affected if your dead, unless the possibility of heaven, where that still wouldn't be the case since everything about heaven would be in a sense perfect.
DeleteTyler Martin (H02)
ReplyDeleteThe difference between pleasure and happiness for me is pleasure is short-term. One can find pleasure by indulging in their favorite snack, but this does not bring them happiness. Happiness is achieved by working towards achievement and setting up your life in a way that brings you fulfillment and a sense of achievement. I think this is why Thomas Jefferson wrote in the declaration of independence that people have the right to the pursuit of happiness. I believe he put the pursuit because happiness is not guaranteed and it is something one has to work for. These topics are tackled in the movie titled “Pursuit of Happyness” and the Kid Cudi song titled “Pursuit of Happiness.” Both of these different forms of art present a man who struggles in everyday life trying to find fulfillment, whether that be through achievement or a misguided attempt at happiness through pleasure which inevitably fails, both back up the argument that to be virtuous is to be happy and to find pleasure is merely a band-aid solution. This raises another question that is on the discussion list and that is ‘Am I happy? Am I a hedonist?’ I truly think I am happy at the moment. I do not think I am at the state of happiness (fulfillment) that I will be at eventually, however I am on the track to achieving a high state of eudaimonia. I am at a school where I am learning more pertinent information than I ever have, I am making lasting, beneficial friendships, and I am learning how to be on my own. I am on the track to fulfillment and while I indulge in pleasure, I do not think I am a hedonist because I do not solely seek pleasure. I merely find pleasure on my way to happiness.
Change is the only constant in the universe, which is paradoxical because while everything is always changing, whether microscopically or on a larger scale, the fact that the universe around us is always changing never really changes.
H03
ReplyDeleteWhat do you see as the value of logic?
I think logic is a very important tool. It can give us definite answers for situations where people might believe different things or can only approach a situation from an emotional standpoint. Logic is important for everyday because it influences the day to day decisions we make and keeps us in check.
What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
For me pleasure would be eating a whole bag of Doritos or taking a bath. I would measure happiness in terms of personal achievement. For instance, if I earned a distinguished rating on a solo or got a dream job that would make me happy.
Do you believe anything strictly on the basis of authority, whether that of a person, an institution, or a tradition? Why or why not?
No because authority doesn't dictate understanding. If you believed something just because someone in higher power said it, then you're not thinking critically for yourself and you're abandoning logic. Instead of finding out for yourself you're placing trust in a higher power that doesn't necessarily have any more understanding about something than you do.
[H3]
ReplyDeleteLH Chapter 2
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world infront of him?
-Aristotle. It's a nod to his theory that in order to find the most perfect form of something then you should go out and explore the real world to find it.
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
-Eudaimonia is a hard concept to grasp because it's just that: a concept. It refers to how you feel and what your life is like when you do the things you want and are successful and "happy." It's like an overall accomplishment of contentedness and happiness. That's the best I can make of it.
DQ
Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?
-I do not agree with Aristotle on this. My own view of death is that once we die, it's the same as before we were born. Just nothing. Either way, we don't exist. So something like my child's illness/death wouldn't effect me because I wouldn't even know.
H1
DeleteI also do not agree with Aristotle's thought of happiness decreasing after your death from illness of a child or something else tragic. I especially do not understand his viewpoint because he is all about going into the real world to understand a concept, but if you have died, how can you go back into the real world and experience your childs death to make you less happy? It does not make sense!
H3
ReplyDeleteLH Chapter 2:
How does one achieve Eudaimonia?
Aristotle believes Eudaimonia can be achieved through living virtually and honestly. This doesn't guarantee happiness because you may have to do things for others that are inconvenient for you.
In the past, I've strongly disagreed with teachers I've admired in the past. It's a very conflicting feeling because I truly respect them but their beliefs are not aligning with mine. It's discouraging and it can make you question your personal beliefs.
Art is a cave within a cave because there are so many ways a piece can be interpreted. Most of the time, the artist never reveals what the piece truly means, so the possibilities are endless as to what it means. You can stare at a piece for hours and still view it's meaning in a different way in what the artist intended to portray.
Lucie Myers H3
DeleteWhat does eudaimonia mean?
ReplyDelete-Eudaimonia is a state of happiness/welfare, the higher achievement of "good." Personally it's not hard to relate the idea of eudaimonia to aspects of my life. Reminds me of my "little reflections" throughout the day, checks and reflection on my day and behavior, not only what I have done and said, but also what I may have thought to myself, and what I could have done to be a better person, and not just to society, but to myself.
What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
- Humans naturally revolve around pleasure, and I believe that it's a pursuit of all to achieve happiness. The difference, is the measures taken to experience either, and what the two mean to us. Happiness is a state, a set of feelings, thoughts, and approaches to life. When one is happy, their mood, way of thinking, perception, and everything else is set when they are happy. Pleasure, in my mind, is a stimulus. Pleasure is achieved through action, and it's not so easily kept. You can have moments of "feeling good," but it's not happiness. People can get caught up chasing pleasure, always needing more, not realizing what they really need to catch is happiness. The difference between happiness and pleasure is understanding the importance of self care and moderation. It is only human to indulge in a world of pleasure, but the care, thought, and effort towards happiness, success, and a legacy must stand out.
What does eudaemonia mean? To sum it up it is the ultimate human flourishing.
ReplyDeleteHow can we increase our chance of eudaemonia? Eudaemonia is different than just being happy. It can be achieved by living a life of good character and virtue.
I agree that eudaemonia is achieved by living a life of good character and virtue, but I think that is also the essence of happiness. When I was reading I got the impression that they are the same.
DeleteH01 1. Aristotle is saying that it takes more than just one moment to feel true happiness. It comes from a well lived life which takes time. 2. Aristotle reaches out towards the world in front of him. 3. Eudaimonia is the feeling of success and flourishing. 4. We can increase our chance by developing the right kind of character. 5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to life in a society. 6. "Truth by authority" is hostile to the spirit of philosophy because the authority can be wrong, but no further thought is made because people fully trust the authority. DQ The difference between pleasure and happiness is the difference between candy and success. Both are good, but the success feels significantly better. If I was depicted in Raphael's School of Athens I would be on Aristotle's side because he takes the time to find proof for his thoughts in the world around him. I do not agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death can still impact happiness because it cannot be felt unless there is an afterlife. I want to say I am happy because I work hard for the things that I have and will have, but I also am a hedonist because I take quite a lot of joy from the smaller pleasures like a good cup of coffee, candy, and video games on my phone. I did believe anything strictly on the basis of authority until very recently. A good example of this is my belief in the Christian God. I believed that there was, without a doubt, an afterlife, a God, etc. because I had been old so by my parents, pastor, and others. Now, I tend to think more critically about the things I am told. For example, I read the Bible when I have questions rather than listening to others. I would rather attend Aristotle's Lyceum because there would be more action put towards thought. We could go out not the world and find evidence for what was talked about. I have sharply disagreed with a teacher whom I deeply admired. I know that they are human just as I am, so they can be wrong. The first time I disagreed with a teacher was in Kindergarten. I was in Mrs. Bruce's class and she was asking for someone to say the world "women." I raised my hand and said "women," but she said I was wrong. She had thought I had said "woman". Change is the only constant in the Universe because if everything changes nothing can stay the same. It is paradoxical because we can never know what exactly the constant will be. We just know that it will change. I do not know if there is a God, but if he did exist he would likely be more of a mover because he has no reason to become invested into the lives of mere mortals. The value of logic is that it is useful in determining our next move.
ReplyDelete(H1)
ReplyDeleteI disagree with Aristotle's claim of something tragic after your death affecting your happiness. While I do not know what happens after we die, or if there is an afterlife, I believe something only affects us while we are alive. Once a life is over, its over and nothing can affect it. On the otherhand, we often think of relatives that have passed and question whether they would support or agree with the choices we made. This keeps their opinions and thoughts alive, even if its only in our heads. If we question ourselves through their eyes, then it would not be so far fetched to say that our actions can affect them even after they have passed away.
'Truth by Authority' is hostile as it limits the need for proof. If our favorite celebrity says something, often times fans will agree whole heartedly just because their idol said it. If we look no further than an authority figure's opinion, we will never move forward as a society. It limits our ability to think freely and for our own learning.
I agree with your opinion of Aristotle's thoughts. No matter what afterlife may look like I do not believe life and death can affect each other in such a way that happiness during life is damaged.
Delete1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
ReplyDeleteAristotle means that you shouldn't get short lived "happiness" from one warm day which "proves that summer has come" when it hasn't. He said that happiness was not short term joy, happiness is your sense of overall achievement in life.
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him? Plato points up to the World of Forms and Aristotle is reaching out to the world in front of him.
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
Eudaimonia means to flourishing or success in ones life.
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
You can increase eudaimonia by developing the right kind of character, you feel the right kind of emotions at the right time.
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to life in a society.
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
If everyone believed what someone said because they are an authority figure, it doesn't actually prove anything. Philosophy flourishes through debate on topics and challenging others views, so if one person is always deemed to be right there is no room for possibly exploring another viewpoint.
H1
Delete[H01] 1. What did Aristotle mean by "one swallow doesn't make a summer"?
ReplyDeleteAristotle means that it takes more than one experience of something to prove that it is actually there. One swallow appearing in front of you does not mean that it is summer. It would take multiple swallows to prove that summer has arrived. The phrase is used in reference with happiness. Such as, one happy experience does not mean that you are happy. It would take many happy experiences to show that you are happy.
2. In Raphael's School of Athens, who reaches out towards the world in front of him?
Aristotle.
3. What does eudaimonia mean?
It means happiness or success. It is a total sum of all happiness in one's existence.
4. How can we increase our chance of eudaimonia?
We can be virtuous people who act out of good will.
5. Eudaimonia can only be achieved in relation to what?
Life in society.
6. How is "truth by authority" hostile to the spirit of philosophy?
It removes the aspect of everybody having their own thoughts. The people begin just believing what someone else believes instead of putting their own thoughts into it.
Bryson Chandler
Delete(H2)
ReplyDeleteIf you were depicted in Raphael's School of Athens whose side would you be on, Plato's or Aristotle's? Or would you be in a posture more like Diogenes's?
I would side more with Aristotle than Plato if I were depicted in Raphael’s School of Athens. I believe this to be true because Aristotle seems to possess a more reflective and inquisitive mindset which connects with me far more than Plato’s close-minded and straightforward approach. I have always been more curious with the world and the way things appear to be much like Aristotle.
Do you agree with Aristotle that tragic events occurring after your death, like your child's tragic illness, can still impact your happiness?
I do not completely agree with Aristotle's view because I believe happiness is a state of mind and one’s mind is not conscience after death. However, if you are a religious person who believes in heaven, hell, or other forms of afterlife, then I could understand how seeing your loved ones in distressed or suffering could impact your overall happiness.
What's the difference, for you, between pleasure and happiness?
In my personal opinion, the different between pleasure and happiness is that one is temporary while the other deals with one’s mental condition. To further elaborate, I view pleasure as a short term feeling that individuals gain when from experiences that bring them contentment or satisfaction. However, I consider happiness to be a state of mind that one must obtain and maintain throughout their life.